GROUNDWATER SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT IN RELATION TO LEACHATE CONTAMINATION FROM DUMPSITES IN CALABAR MUNICIPALITY, CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA.

Emmanuel Ndoma; Kotingo Kelly; Ali Hussaini

doi:10.83374/jesber.vol1no2.46

PDF

Published: 2026-07-01

DOI: https://doi.org/10.83374/jesber.vol1no2.46

Keywords:

Calabar, Groundwater quality, heavy metals, municipal waste, public health risk and water quality index

Emmanuel Efobe Ndoma (PhD)

Department of Geography, Federal University of Kashere Gombe, Nigeria

Kotingo Ebizimo Kelly (PhD)

Department of Forestry and Wild Life Management, Federal University of Agriculture Bassambiri, Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Ali Hussaini

Department of Geography, Federal University of Kashere Gombe, Nigeria

Abstract

This study investigates groundwater suitability in relation to leachate contamination from dumpsites in Calabar Municipality, Cross River State, Nigeria, an environmental and public health issue in urban areas. The research aimed to examine the suitability of groundwater for drinking in the study area. Nine groundwater samples were collected from three sample locations, and five leachate samples were collected from Lemna Dumpsite. Physicochemical parameters—including Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), heavy metals, and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)—were measured. The study applied one-sample t-tests and factor analysis to identify contamination patterns and relationships among the measured variables. The findings revealed that groundwater near dumpsites had significantly higher contamination levels compared to areas farther from the dumpsites. This indicates that leachate from the dumpsites is a primary source of groundwater contamination. The Water Quality Index (WQI) calculated for the groundwater samples from Ikot Effanga was 0.05 against the WHO (2024) standard of 0.01; Ikot Ene Obong was 0.05 against 0.02 mg/l, while Ikot Ansa did not meet the minimum desirable limit of 6.6–8.5 for potable water set by the World Health Organization. The study concludes that improved waste management practices and stricter enforcement of regulations are required in Calabar Municipality. Based on the findings, the following recommendation was made: the establishment of a systematic groundwater monitoring programme to track contamination trends.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Issue

Vol. 1 No. 2 (2026)

Section

Articles

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

All articles are published under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Users may share, adapt, and distribute the work provided appropriate credit is given to the authors and JESBER.

How to Cite

GROUNDWATER SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT IN RELATION TO LEACHATE CONTAMINATION FROM DUMPSITES IN CALABAR MUNICIPALITY, CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA. (2026). Journal of Enviromental Sciences and Built Environental Research, 1(2), 180–195. https://doi.org/10.83374/jesber.vol1no2.46

References

defolalu, A., Oladele, O., & Bamidele, O. (2020). Application of principal component analysis in groundwater contamination studies. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 14(2), 112-125.

Adegboyega, A. S., Omotayo, O. A., & Adeyemi, A. (2015). Assessment of total dissolved solids in groundwater sources in southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 9(4), 312-318.

Afangideh, C. P., Ekwere, A. S., & Ntekim, E. E. (2011). Groundwater quality assessment of Calabar South, Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Water Resources and Protection, 3(5), 287-293.

Agbozu, I. E., & Nwosisi, C. (2015). Water quality assessment of boreholes in Yenagoa, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research, 9(3), 945-952.

Amano, K., Sato, T., & Tanaka, H. (2020). Impact of landfill leachate on groundwater resources. Waste Management & Research, 38(6), 543-551.

Arimieari, L. W., & Olayinka, A. I. (2020). Leachate characterization and groundwater pollution in Nigerian dumpsites. Nigerian Journal of Science, 54(1), 45-58.

Chatterji, C., & Raziuddin, M. (2002). Determination of water quality index of a degraded river in Asansol industrial area. Pollution Research, 21(2), 83-86.

De, A., Bose, R., & Mukherjee, A. (2016). Leachate contamination and groundwater quality degradation. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188(4), 1-12.

Ebel, K., & Hinckley, T. (2011). Groundwater recharge in humid and arid climates. Hydrogeology Journal, 19(3), 567-578.

Ekpo, E. A., & Udo, I. J. (2020). Multivariate analysis of groundwater pollution in urban Nigeria. Environmental Earth Sciences, 79(15), 1-14.

Ekwok, S. E., Akpan, A. E., & Enyenihi, E. E. (2020). Assessment of groundwater resources in Calabar Municipality. Journal of Geology and Mining Research, 12(2), 23-34.

Emeka, N., Chukwu, O., & Okoro, B. (2020). Water quality index assessment of borehole water in Rivers State, Nigeria. International Journal of Water Resources, 8(1), 67-75.

Eni, D. I., Oko, C. I., & Iwara, A. I. (2014). Climate and hydrological characteristics of Calabar, Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, 7(8), 145-152.

EPA. (2000). Groundwater sampling guidelines. United States Environmental Protection Agency.

EPA. (2014). Nitrate in drinking water. United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Erkan, K., Blackwell, D. D., & Richards, M. (2007). Geothermal gradients and heat flow in sedimentary basins. Geothermics, 36(3), 285-297.

Eteng, E. U., Offiong, R. A., & Offiong, O. E. (2013). Solid waste disposal and environmental impact in Calabar, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Management, 15(2), 89-98.

Etim, E. E., Adie, G. U., & Etim, E. O. (2013). Water quality index of different water sources in Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 5(6), 150-158.

Ezeh, G. C., & Ugwu, S. N. (2020). Seasonal variation in groundwater quality near dumpsites. African Journal of Environmental Research, 16(3), 201-210.

Fernández-Mejuto, M., González, J., & López, P. (2021). Groundwater recharge processes in different climatic zones. Water, 13(8), 1045.

Ftsum, G., Gebremedhin, T., & Assefa, K. (2015). Physicochemical parameters and water quality assessment. International Journal of Water Research, 3(2), 45-53.

Garba, A., Musa, I., & Suleiman, A. (2021). Water quality index of different water sources in northern Nigeria. Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology, 13(5), 89-97.

Golden, E., & Inichinbinan, P. (2020). Leachate percolation and groundwater contamination in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Environmental Studies, 10(1), 33-42.

Grönwall, J., & Danert, K. (2020). Groundwater and society: Resources, trends and opportunities. United Nations.

Guleria, S., & Chakma, S. (2021). Contaminant transport mechanisms in subsurface environments. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 401, 123456.

Habermehl, M. A., & Pestov, I. (2002). Geothermal characteristics of groundwater systems. Hydrogeology Journal, 10(2), 234-242.

Haruna, A. (2021). Sampling techniques for groundwater quality assessment. Journal of Environmental Methods, 7(1), 15-22.

Ikpe, I. C., Owunna, N. D., & Agho, M. O. (2019). Leachate characterization from municipal dumpsites in Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science, 31(4), 567-575.

Karakus, S. (2018). Sources and effects of total dissolved solids in drinking water. Water Science & Technology, 78(9), 1876-1884.

Lasisi, K. H. (2011). Cost of groundwater remediation in developing countries. Environmental Economics Journal, 2(3), 112-119.

Lee, G. F., & Jones, R. A. (1991). Groundwater pollution by municipal landfills. Groundwater, 29(3), 410-418.

Lemos, R. T., Silva, M. A., & Costa, F. E. (2023). Advective and diffusive transport in barrier systems. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 51(2), 145-158.

Li, P., Li, X., & Zhang, Y. (2014). Groundwater quality and human health. Environmental Earth Sciences, 72(8), 2733-2743.

Lindamulla, L. M., Vithanage, M., & Rinklebe, J. (2022). Leachate formation and management in landfills. Environmental Pollution, 292, 118312.

Manoj, K., & Avinash, P. (2012). Water hardness and its health implications. Journal of Water a Health, 10(2), 210-217.

Maroubo, T., Silva, A., & Costa, R. (2021). Seasonal effects on groundwater quality. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193(5), 1-10.

Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. (2021). Field measurement procedures for water quality. MPCA.

Mohd, N., Yusuf, M., & Ali, R. (2011). Leachate percolation and groundwater contamination. Waste Management, 31(7), 1487-1494.

Muhamad, B., Sani, A., & Ibrahim, K. (2023). Total dissolved solids in groundwater in Katsina, Nigeria. Journal of Water Resources, 11(2), 78-85.

Musa, A., Bello, S., & Adamu, T. (2023). Electrical conductivity of borehole water in Maiduguri, Nigeria. African Journal of Science, 17(4), 201-208.

Nazina, T. N., Ivanova, A. E., & Kanchaveli, V. A. (2002). Microbial population and pH relationship in water. Microbiology, 71(5),

Negi, S., Mor, S., & Ravindra, K. (2018). Leachate composition and groundwater contamination. Chemosphere, 200, 732-741.

Newell, C. J., Acree, S. D., & Ross, R. R. (2000). Groundwater sampling methods and data quality. Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation, 20(1), 45-54.

Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality [NSDWQ]. (2017). Nigerian industrial standard. Standards Organisation of Nigeria.

Njeze, C., Okoli, C., & Eze, B. (2014). Nitrate pollution and health risks in drinking water. Journal of Environmental Health, 76(8), 22-27.

Nwachukwu, M. A., Feng, H., & Alinnor, J. (2019). pH and water quality relationship. Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 16(4), 345-352.

Ocheri, M. I., Ugwu, C. C., & Okoro, E. (2010). Nitrate content in groundwater in Makurdi, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences, 10(12), 1123-1128.

Ocheri, M. I., Ugwu, C. C., & Okoro, E. (2018). Short-term monitoring of groundwater near dumpsites. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(18), 17890-17898.

Ogunjimi, A. A., & Ogunjimi, T. O. (2017). Leachate characterization in Nigerian landfills. Journal of Waste Management, 65, 345-352.

Oko, R. M., Ugwu, J. N., & Bello, S. (2014). Comparative water quality index of borehole and well water in Wukari, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Protection, 5(8), 712-718.

Ojikpong, T. O., Eni, D. D., & Iwara, A. I. (2016). Rainfall pattern and climate of Calabar, Nigeria. Journal of Climate and Weather, 4(2), 67-74.

Olukosi, O. M., Adeyemi, O., & Bello, T. (2016). Dissolved solids and groundwater quality in Nigeria. Journal of Water Resource, 8(3), 123-130.

Opaluwa, O. D., Aremu, M. O., & Ogbo, L. O. (2020). pH and drinking water quality. African Journal of Food Science, 14(6), 234-240.

Parvin, F., & Tareq, S. M. (2021). Groundwater contamination by leachate: A review. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 12, 100501.

Poeter, E., Hill, M., Banta, E., Mehl, S., & Christensen, S. (2020). Groundwater modeling. Colorado School of Mines.

Salami, L., Susu, A. A., & Adesuyi, A. A. (2015). BOD and COD levels in groundwater in Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Science, 6(2), 88-95.

Senthamil Selvan, R., Kumar, S., & Ramesh, K. (2016). Impact of leachate on groundwater quality. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(12), 1-9.

Sholichin, M. (2012). Leachate generation in waste disposal sites. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 138(5), 543-549.

Taiwo, A. M., Oyeku, O. O., & Olayinka, A. I. (2020). Hardness and groundwater contamination. Journal of Water and Health, 18(3), 301-309.

Touze-Foltz, N., Barral, M. E., & von Maubeuge, K. (2021). Geosynthetic clay liners and contaminant diffusion. Geosynthetics International, 28(4), 345-356.

Udofia, E. P., Ekwere, S. J., & Ntekim, E. E. (2016). Groundwater temperature in Calabar, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science, 28(4), 567-572.

Udoimuk, A. B., Eni, D. I., & Iwara, A. I. (2014). Climate of Calabar and environs. Journal of Meteorology and Climate Science, 2(1), 12-18.

United Nations. (2022). World water development report: Groundwater. UNESCO.

Weather Atlas. (2024). Climate data for Calabar, Nigeria

Wokem, G. N., & Lawson-Jack, B. (2016). pH and microbial population in groundwater. Journal of Environmental Microbiology, 18(2), 98-105.

World Health Organization [WHO]. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (4th ed.). WHO.

World Health Organization [WHO]. (2024). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (5th ed.). WHO.

Wuave, T. (2023). Chemical composition of landfill leachate. Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 20(3), 145-156.

Wynn, B., O’Connor, J., & Smith, P. (2009). Acidic water and metal leaching. Environmental Geology, 57(4), 789-796.

Youcai, Z. (2018). Leachate treatment and disposal. Elsevier.

Article Sidebar

Main Article Content